Par JJB
Le World Energy Outlook (WEO) de 2013, publié par l'Agence Internationale de l'Énergie (IEA), a déjà été présenté sur ce blog.
Actuellement, dans le cadre de la mise à jour 2014 du WEO, un rapport spécial sur l'Afrique subsaharienne a été publié par l'IEA. Celui-ci présente l'énergie non seulement comme un instrument favorisant la croissance économique de la région en question, mais également comme une référence du progrès sociétal - deux aspects qui sont en effet étroitement liés.
Ainsi, les auteurs soulignent qu'aujourd'hui, dans cette région, plus de 620 millions de personnes (deux tiers de la population) vivent sans électricité et presque 730 millions utilisent des installations cuisinières inefficaces voire dangereuses. Selon l'IEA, ce manque d'équipements adéquats
de cuisine cause près de 600.000 morts par an en Afrique, suite aux intoxications par la fumée. Le nombre total des personnes vivant dans ces situations ne baissera que de manière modeste d'ici 2040, selon les projections du WEO, qui estiment qu'il y aura alors toujours 650 millions de personnes (soit un tiers de la population) dans cette situation-là, notamment dans les zones rurales.
Cette réduction plutôt faible, en termes absolus, d'ici 2040 est en lien avec un autre phénomène : la croissance démographique. Celle-ci impliquerait que la croissance économique et le progrès énergétique seront, à un certain degré, relativisés par l'augmentation de la population, selon l'IEA. En effet, selon ce rapport, la taille de l'économie de la région va quadrupler d'ici 2040, tandis que la population va doubler et que la demande énergétique va augmenter d'environ 80%.
Face aux besoins énergétiques et infrastructurelles qui accompagnent une telle évolution, Fatih Birol, économiste en chef de l'IEA, met en exergue l'importance cruciale de l'investissement dans le secteur énergétique. Selon lui, chaque dollar investi apportera 15 dollars à l'économie dans son ensemble (ce qui donne également une idée du frein que peut représenter un niveau insuffisant d'investissements dans le secteur énergétique).
Aussi, les auteurs du rapport constatent que, d'une part, les investissements dans les nouveaux systèmes d'approvisionnement d'énergie ont augmenté ; mais que, d'autre part, les deux tiers de ces investissements depuis 2000 visaient à accroître les ressources pour l'exportation.
En outre, d'après le WEO, l'Afrique sub-saharienne reste, même en 2040, un émetteur faible de gaz à effet de serre (3% du total des émissions liées à l'énergie en 2040), mais est potentiellement fortement impactée par le changement climatique. Cela pourrait également avoir un impact sur le secteur énergétique, par exemple sur les installations hydroélectriques.
De nombreuses autres tendances sont décrites dans ce rapport spécial du WEO sur l'Afrique sub-saharienne, par exemple sur l'évolution du poids des différents pays (par ex.: Nigéria et Angola pour l'export ; Afrique du Sud pour son développement économique particulier ; d'autres pays se développant également sur ces voies) et sur les tendances des différentes sources d'énergie (par ex.: la biomasse couvrant plus de 60% de la demande totale aujourd'hui, moins de 50% en 2040 ; le charbon étant la deuxième source d'énergie aujourd'hui, avec 18% de la demande totale, notamment en raison du parc de production en Afrique du Sud, mais baissant d'ici 2040). Néanmoins, ces questions ne peuvent pas être approfondies en détail sur ce blog.
Different texts of mine are gathered here. The approach is multilingual and interdisciplinary. The topics are international, focusing on sustainability, economy, politics and social aspects. Enjoy! -JJ Bürger-
Dieser Blog präsentiert eine Auswahl verschiedener Texte von mir. Die Herangehensweise ist multilingual und interdisziplinär. Die Themen sind international und betreffen vor allem Nachhaltigkeit, Wirtschaft, Politik und soziale Aspekte.
Viel Vergnügen! - JJ Bürger -
Ce blog rassemble une séléction de mes textes. L'approche est plurilingue et interdisciplinaire. Les sujets sont internationaux et concernent notamment la durabilité, l'économie, la politique et certains aspects sociaux. Bonne lecture! - JJ Bürger -
Viel Vergnügen! - JJ Bürger -
Ce blog rassemble une séléction de mes textes. L'approche est plurilingue et interdisciplinaire. Les sujets sont internationaux et concernent notamment la durabilité, l'économie, la politique et certains aspects sociaux. Bonne lecture! - JJ Bürger -
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Thursday, October 23, 2014
Friday, October 17, 2014
Time-limited job contracts in Germany and Europe
By JJB
In Germany, the amount of employed people increased from 38,7 million in 1991 to 41,6 million in 2012 (including all kinds of employment : full or part-time, limited or unlimited contracts, etc.), according to the German Federal Agency for Civic Education :
Nevertheless, one may ask: What about the qualitative evolution of employment?
Indeed, it has frequently been reported that unlimited job contracts have become increasingly rare in Western societies. This can, for the example, be illustrated by the following graph, showing that, among the German population, the percentage of those with an unlimited full-time job contract fell from 45% in 1992 to 38% in 2007 (and might probably have decreased even further since then, due to the economic crises from 2008 on).
However, those figures are not backed up by a precise definition of the comparison's references.
For a more differentiated approach, the following graph gives some interesting insights in terms of absolute figures. These statistics from the Federal Agency for Civic Education show an increase of about +1 million employees with time-limited job contracts: from about 1,8 million in 1991 to about 2,8 million in 2011. Moreover, this graph also shows some other forms of what the Agency calls "untypical forms of employment", which are on the rise. For example, one of those categories is part-time employment, which is much more common among women than among men, as can be seen in this graph.
However, according to another source, for those who have a time-limited job contract, the risk of very short contract lengths is particularly low in Germany: a very little share is below 3 months, while there is a considerable share of limited work contracts of more than 12 months. This means that time-limited job contracts are more stable in Germany than in all the other countries which are quoted here. At first sight, this may sound surprising in the context of rising figures of flexible work and limited-term contracts in Germany (for example, the newspaper FAZ interpreted this as a contradiction).
Yet, the two aspects might in fact very well go together, since longer contract terms might be a way for employers to counter turnover rates which become too high. Moreover, the degree of overall use of time-limited contracts has got an impact on the pertinence of this comparison between countries. Hence, absolute figures would be a helpful additional reference here, in order to interpret those relative figures with even more accuracy.
In any case, further research would be required in order to assess those questions in more detail.
In Germany, the amount of employed people increased from 38,7 million in 1991 to 41,6 million in 2012 (including all kinds of employment : full or part-time, limited or unlimited contracts, etc.), according to the German Federal Agency for Civic Education :
Development of employment in Germany. NB: Figures not limited to German nationals or residents. Source: Federal Agency for Civic Education to enlarge, click on the graph |
Indeed, it has frequently been reported that unlimited job contracts have become increasingly rare in Western societies. This can, for the example, be illustrated by the following graph, showing that, among the German population, the percentage of those with an unlimited full-time job contract fell from 45% in 1992 to 38% in 2007 (and might probably have decreased even further since then, due to the economic crises from 2008 on).
Part of Germans with unlimited full-time work contract. Source: Statista to enlarge, click on the graph |
For a more differentiated approach, the following graph gives some interesting insights in terms of absolute figures. These statistics from the Federal Agency for Civic Education show an increase of about +1 million employees with time-limited job contracts: from about 1,8 million in 1991 to about 2,8 million in 2011. Moreover, this graph also shows some other forms of what the Agency calls "untypical forms of employment", which are on the rise. For example, one of those categories is part-time employment, which is much more common among women than among men, as can be seen in this graph.
"Untypical forms of employment", according to Federal Agency for Civic Education ; (thousands) to enlarge, click on the graph |
However, according to another source, for those who have a time-limited job contract, the risk of very short contract lengths is particularly low in Germany: a very little share is below 3 months, while there is a considerable share of limited work contracts of more than 12 months. This means that time-limited job contracts are more stable in Germany than in all the other countries which are quoted here. At first sight, this may sound surprising in the context of rising figures of flexible work and limited-term contracts in Germany (for example, the newspaper FAZ interpreted this as a contradiction).
Yet, the two aspects might in fact very well go together, since longer contract terms might be a way for employers to counter turnover rates which become too high. Moreover, the degree of overall use of time-limited contracts has got an impact on the pertinence of this comparison between countries. Hence, absolute figures would be a helpful additional reference here, in order to interpret those relative figures with even more accuracy.
In any case, further research would be required in order to assess those questions in more detail.
Comparison of the length of limited-term contracts in selected European countries. Source: Statista to enlarge, click on the graph |
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